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Horses were 听during the 4th millennium B.C.E.听and spread to and throughout the Near East and Mediterranean from there. In Greece, horses became important in life generally and especially in听warfare, racing, traveling, and hunting. Horses were expensive to purchase and to maintain and, for these reasons, ownership was largely limited to the wealthier members of ancient communities. In fact, the second-highest property class in Athens was called the "hippeis," or "horse-owners" in the . Horses therefore became symbols of high social status in ancient Greek society.听

The importance of horses in Greek life is illustrated by the frequency of their depiction in art throughout all periods of Greek history. Horses are shown in ancient Greek vase-painting, as well as in large- and听small-scale sculpture. They can be shown with or without riders and in a variety of situations,听from听听迟辞听听(1). Horses often look small relative to humans in Greek art: while this can be听the result of the artist attempting to fit horses and humans into the same composition, 听were, in fact, somewhat smaller than their modern counterparts. The Greeks believed that horses听were created by听, and occasionally horses were sacrificed to the god by drowning (2).听

Horses were听听as early as听the Late Bronze Age in Greece (ca. 1,600 to 1,100 B.C.E.), first to pull chariots and later for cavalry. The uses of chariots in battle is attested by the epic poet Homer, who mentions that the best horses were fed wheat instead of the typical barley and even given wine to drink (3). Because few people were wealthy enough听to own horses, the ancient Greek cavalry was usually small;听in 431 B.C.E., for example, Athens听had only 1,000 men in its cavalry and听Sparta听did not have a real cavalry at all until 424 B.C.E. Like their human counterparts, horses engaged in battle in ancient Greece could be .听Horses did not play a major role in Greek warfare until the time of the Macedonian king听听(356-323 B.C.E.) (4).

in ancient Greece, originating as part of the ceremonies in early funeral games. The racing of听became an event at 听beginning in 680 B.C.E. Horse racing with riders, not chariots, was introduced somewhat later. The races took place on courses called听听(from the Greek words "hippos," meaning听horse, and "dromos," meaning course), dangerous tracks with hairpin turns at either end. As is the case in horse racing today, the prizes and acclaim were given to the owners of the horse teams, not to the 听or the . This loophole was the only means by which the , as the owner of a team of horses, could be listed as a winner of an Olympic event, honors most typically accorded to men听(5). In addition to , ancient Greek athletic competitions could include听horseback acrobatics, which must have been thrilling to watch, and military sports, such as throwing javelins from horseback (6).

Traveling and hunting by horse were luxuries reserved for the rich. The use of horses in hunting, as well as in battle听is well-illustrated on the so-called Alexander Sarcophagus,听a (Lebanon). One side shows a battle, with some soldiers mounted on horses; the other shows men hunting lions from horseback.听

Handbooks听instructed horse owners on the correct treatment of their animals; the oldest one still surviving today is听听by the 听(c. 430-354 B.C.E.), which details the proper care and training of horses (7). No matter the amount of training, however, it must have been uncomfortable to ride a horse in ancient Greece听for both animal and rider, as there were no saddles, stirrups, or horseshoes (8).

This essay was written to accompany a听collection of Greek artifacts at the 蜜糖直播 Art Museum.听

Footnotes

1. On horses in art, see Sidney David Markman,听The Horse in Greek Art听(New York: Biblo and Tannen, 1969).
2. Harold B. Barclay,听The Role of the Horse in Man's Culture听(London: J.A. Allen, 1980): 57.
3. Robert Way, "Horses of Ancient Greece," in ed. Michael Seth-Smith,听The Horse in Art and History听(New York: Mayflower Books, 1978): 22-3.
4. On cavalry and warfare see Juliet Clutton-Brock,听Horse Power: A History of the Horse and the Donkey in Human Societies听(Harvard University Press, 1992): 106-12; Ann Hyland,听The Horse in the Ancient World听(Westport, CT: Praeger,听2003): 128-44; Simon Hornblower and Antony Spawforth,听The Oxford Classical Dictionary听(Oxford University Press,听1999): 709.
5. On horse and chariot racing see Clutton-Brock,听Horse Power: 112-3; Hornblower and Spawforth,听The Oxford Classical Dictionary:听727-8; Way, "Horses of Ancient Greece": 24-6.
6. On equestrian spectator sports see Barclay,听The Role of the Horse in Man's Culture:听54-5.
7. Hornblower and Spawforth,听The Oxford Classical Dictionary:听728-9.
8. Way, "Horses of Ancient Greece," 23.